PSYCHOLOGY 2301

 

A STUDENT SUPPLEMENTARY HANDBOOK

 

TO ACCOMPANY

 

 

 

 

Introduction to Psychology

(7^th Ed.)

 

By

 

Rod Plotnik

 

 

 

 

 

Joanne Hsu

Jeanne Spaulding

Linda Whitney

Iliana Castillo

Irv Lichtman

David Gersh

 

 

 

HOUSTON COMMUNITY COLLEGE SYSTEM

2005

 

WHAT TO KNOW

ABOUT STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY

 

 

TEXTBOOK

To succeed in this course, you must have the appropriate textbook.  There are several textbooks currently in use by instructors of PSYC 2301 at Houston Community College.  Check your instructor's syllabus to be certain that you have the textbook s/he has specified.

 

THE PURPOSE OF THIS HANDBOOK

At Houston Community College, PSYC 2301: Introduction to Psychology includes a core set of topics and concepts. This material is covered in all classes at all campuses and is tested in a comprehensive final examination at the end of the course. This Supplementary Handbook is intended as a guide to the specific concepts, terms, and objectives representing the core topics that will be covered on the departmental final exam. You are encouraged to use this Supplementary Handbook as your guide to prepare for the final exam by answering the Learning Objective Questions and defining the Key Terms.

 

CLASS PREPARATION AND STUDY GUIDELINES

The study of psychology is not hard, but there is a lot of material to learn.  Students are expected to keep up with all of the assigned reading.  You should understand the material and be able to relate it to real human behavior.  The information presented below is designed to help you learn the subject by providing the kinds of study hints you can employ successfully in any college class you take.

 

HOW MUCH TIME SHOULD I SPEND STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY?

To be successful, a good guideline for any college class of the amount of time you need to invest outside of class is two hours for each hour you spend in class.  If you can make this commitment, you should encounter no serious problems in completing all assignments and preparing comfortably for tests.  You should spend your time doing the following:

Read Ahead

The best starting place is the Course Schedule in your syllabus.  It will specify the material that needs to be covered in the sequence deemed most appropriate by your instructor.  You should always maintain a disciplined reading schedule so that you can stay current with assigned readings; falling behind in your reading can be disastrous.  You should read ahead all the material that will be covered in the next class.  This reading will acquaint you with the Learning Objective Questions and the Key Terms that will be covered in class.  With this knowledge, you will be prepared to ask questions and discuss relevant topics.

Read Effectively

Create a comfortable reading environment for yourself.  Avoid distractions and interruptions.  Be alert and attentive.  Don’t rush yourself.  These “little things” will increase your comprehension of the subject.  Use your Supplementary Handbook as a guide for your reading.  Keep a dictionary by your side to look up any unfamiliar words.  Remember, as in sports, music, dance, or other arts, learning takes time and effort; the more you put in, the more you will get out of the learning process.

SHOULD I ATTEND CLASS?

Studies indicate that students who attend their classes do better than students who do not attend.  In class, you will not only cover important course-related information, but, additionally, announcements will be made, due dates assigned, and study suggestions offered.  In college, you are largely responsible for your own learning.  Your instructor is a facilitator.  Use class time to ask questions, seek clarification, and participate in discussions.  The more involved you are in your own learning, the more fruitful the activity will be, and the more you will learn.

 

WHAT SHOULD I DO DURING CLASS TIME?

There are several things you can do to improve your chances of being successful in your class.  You are in control of all of them, so do the following things to maximize the benefits of being in class.

Be On Time

The start of class is an important time.  Be prepared to take notes, participate, or take a test.  Tardiness is disruptive to you and your classmates.

Take Good Notes

Good note taking keeps your mind focused on the subject being discussed.  Attentiveness should lead to better comprehension.  Note taking provides you with documentation about what the instructor feels is the most relevant, important, difficult, or interesting information about a subject.  You should couple your notes with related text material for a comprehensive understanding of the subject.  Use your notes to prepare for assignments and tests.  Make sure your notes are legible, thorough, and organized.

Participate in Class Discussions

Whenever you have the opportunity to participate, do so!  Show off what you have learned, but do it in a way that contributes to a positive learning environment for you and your classmates.  Be involved in the learning process.  Ask relevant questions.  Offer insights.  Give examples.  Participation should be constructive and fun.

Get to Know Your Classmates

Together you can do several things that enhance learning.  Every time you explain a concept to someone else, you increase your understanding of the material.  You can share ideas and information.  You can check each other to make sure you are learning the material.  You can “bounce” ideas around.  You can study together in advance of tests.  If you miss a class, you’ll know someone who will share notes with you or who can tell you about up-coming assignments or tests.

 

These suggestions are offered to assist you in making the most of your study of psychology, and indeed, of your college experience.  You are special because you chose to pursue higher learning.  Invest in yourself and you should be successful.

 

Introduction to Psychology (7^th Ed.)

Rod Plotnik

LEARNING OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

& KEY TERMS for the FINAL EXAMINATION

 

For the comprehensive Final Exam, students are responsible for the Learning Objective Questions and Key Terms listed in this section.  Learning Objective Questions and Key Terms not included in this list will not be tested on the Final Exam.

 

** Note:  The key terms marked with “*” indicate those that are not defined in the Plotnik’s textbook.  The definitions for them are provided in the Supplementary List in the Addendum section.

Table of Contents

MODULE 1:    DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

MODULE 2:    PSYCHOLOGY & SCIENCE

MODULE 3:    BRAIN’S BUILDING BLOCKS

MODULE 4:    INCREDIBLE NERVOUS SYSTEM

MODULE 9:    CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

MODULE 10:  OPERANT & COGNITIVE APPROACHES

MODULE 11:  TYPES OF MEMORY

MODULE 12:  REMEMBERING & FORGETTING

MODULE 17:  INFANCY & CHILDHOOD

MODULE 18:  ADOLESCENCE & ADULTHOOD

MODULE 19:  FREUDIAN & HUMANISTIC THEORIES

MODULE 20:  SOCIAL COGNITIVE & TRAIT THEORIES

MODULE 21:  HEALTH, STRESS & COPING

MODULE 22:  ASSESSMENT & ANXIETY DISORDERS

MODULE 23:  MOOD DISORDERS & SCHIZOPHRENIA

 

 

MODULE 1:  DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

 

DEFINITION & GOALS

1.1        What is psychology?  (p. 4)

 

psychology.

 

 

MODULE 2:  PSYCHOLOGY & SCIENCE

 

ANSWERING QUESTIONS

2.1       What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of the following methods of scientific research – the survey, the case study, and the experiment? (p. 28)

2.2       When should each of the three methods be used? (p. 28)

 

survey; case study; experiment.

 

 

SURVEYS

2.3       What kind of information can be obtained from surveys? (p. 29)

2.4       Why the surveys may be biased? (p. 29)

 

 population*(see Addendum); sample*(see Addendum); representative sample*(see Addendum).

 

CASE STUDY

2.5       What kind of information can be obtained from a case study? (p. 30)

 

CULTURAL DIVERSITY:  USE OF PLACEBOS

2.6  What is a placebo and what is a  placebo effect ? (p. 31)

 

       placebo; placebo effect.

 

CORRELATION

2.7    What is a correlation? (p. 32)

2.8   What is a correlation coefficient? (p. 32)

2.9   Why is correlation different from causation (cause-effect relationships)? (p. 33)

 

        correlation; correlation coefficient.

 

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH

2.10           What are some advantages and disadvantages of using a naturalistic setting to conduct research? (p. 35)

2.11           What are some advantages and disadvantages of using a laboratory setting to conduct research? (p. 35)

 

naturalistic setting; laboratory setting.

 

SCIENTIFIC METHOD:  EXPERIMENT

2.12            What is the main advantage of doing an experiment? (p. 36)

2.13     What are the seven rules in conducting an experiment? (pp. 36-37)

2.14     What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable? (p. 36)

2.15      How do the experimental and control groups differ? (p. 37)

2.16      What is the double-blind procedure? (p. 37)

 

hypothesis; independent variable; dependent variable; experimental group; control group;

double-blind procedure.

 

APPLICATION:  RESEARCH CONCERNS

2.17      What are some ethical guidelines governing the use of human participants in research? (p. 40)

 

             debriefing; deception.

 

 

MODULE 3:  BRAIN’S BUILDING BLOCKS

INTRODUCTION

3.1      What is Alzheimer’s disease? (p. 47)

 

Alzheimer’s disease.

 

 

OVERVIEW: HUMAN BRAIN

3.2      What must occur in the brain for there to be some recovery from brain damage? (p. 49)

 

plasticity* (see Addendum).

 

NEURONS : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

3.3   What is a neuron, and what are its three parts? (p. 50)

3.4   What is a synapse? (p. 50)

 

         neuron; cell body; dendrites; axon; synapse.

 

SENDING INFORMATION

3.5    What is the action potential? (p. 53)

 

         action potential.

 

TRANSMITTERS

3.6        What are neurotransmitters, and what role do they play in the transmission of signals from one neuron to

          another? (p. 54)

3.7    How do endorphins affect behavior?  [p. 55; Also discussed in Module 5, p. 113]

 

         neurotransmitter; receptors; endorphins.

 

CULTURAL DIVERSITY:  PLANTS AND DRUGS

3.8    What is reuptake? (p. 59)

3.9    What are the effects of dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine on behavior as revealed from the studies

          of the drugs of cocaine, curare, and mescaline? (p. 59)

 

            reuptake; dopamine; acetylcholine; norepinephrine.

 

APPLICATION:  EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS

3.10   What is the relationship between Parkinson’s disease and dopamine? (p. 60)

 

 

MODULE 4:  INCREDIBLE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 

STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN

4.1    What are some methods that researchers have used to learn about brain structure and function? (pp. 70-71)

4.2    What is an electroencephalogram (EEG) [Module 7, p. 152]

 

         MRI (magnetic resonance imaging); functional MRI (fMRI); PET scan (positron-emission tomography);

         EEG (electroencephalogram); CT (or CAT) scan (computerized axial tomography)* (see Addendum).

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN

4.3     What is the peripheral nervous system? (p. 72)

4.4     What are the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems? (p. 72; also see p. 81)

4.5      What is the crucial function of the reticular formation (in the midbrain)? (p. 73)

4.6      What are the crucial functions handled by the medulla in the hindbrain?  (p. 73)

4.7      What are the primary functions of the cerebellum? (p. 73)

 

peripheral nervous system; autonomic nervous system; sympathetic nervous system; parasympathetic nervous system; reticular formation; medulla; cerebellum.

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES

4.8     What is the cortex? (p. 74)

4.9          What are some of the main areas within the frontal lobes, and what are their functions? (pp. 75-76; see p. 78 for

           Broca’s area)

 

cortex; frontal lobes; Broca's area.

 

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN

4.10    What is the role of the limbic system? (p. 80)

4.11    What are some of the processes regulated by the hypothalamus? (p. 80)

 

limbic system; amygdala; hippocampus; hypothalamus.

 

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

4.12    What is the endocrine system, and what are some of the glands within it? (p. 82)

 

endocrine system; hormone; pituitary gland; adrenal glands.

 

APPLICATION:  SPLIT BRAIN

4.13    What is the corpus callosum? (p. 86)

4.14    What are the basic functions of the left and right hemispheres? (p. 87)

 

hemispheres, corpus callosum.

 

 

MODULE 9:  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 

INTRODUCTION

9.1        What is leaning? (p. 195)

 

            Learning.

 

THREE KINDS OF LEARNING

9.2        What is classical conditioning and who established this type of learning? (p. 196)

9.3        What is operant conditioning and who initially researched this type of learning? (p. 196)

9.4        What is cognitive or observational learning and whose research demonstrated this type of

              learning? (p. 196)

 

            classical conditioning; law of effect; operant conditioning; cognitive learning (or

             observational learning).

 

PROCEDURE:  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

9.5        How was classical conditioning accomplished in Pavlov’s work? (p. 197)

9.6        What are the steps in the classical conditioning procedure? (p.198)

 

            neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus,

conditioned response.

 

OTHER CONDITIOINING CONCEPTS

9.7        What is generalization in classical conditioning? (p. 199)

9.8        What is discrimination in classical conditioning? (p. 199)

9.9        What is extinction, and how is it accomplished in classical conditioning? (p. 199)

9.10      What is spontaneous recovery? (p. 199)

 

            generalization, discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery.

 

RESEARCH FOCUS:  CONDITIONING LITTLE ALBERT

9.11      How did Watson demonstrate that fear could be classically conditioned? (p. 204)

 

APPLICATION:  CONDITIONED FEAR & NAUSEA

9.12What types of responses can be acquired through classical conditioning and how can the

              conditioned responses be unconditioned (or unlearned)?  (pp. 206-207)

 

 

MODULE  10:   OPERANT & COGNITIVE APPROACHES

 

OPERANT CONDITIONING

10.1      How are responses acquired through operant conditioning? (pp. 214-216)

10.2      How is shaping used to condition a response? (p. 215)

 

Skinner box, shaping.

 

REINFORCERS

10.3        What is reinforcement? (p. 218)

10.4      What is punishment? (p. 219)

10.5            What is the goal of both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, and how is

              the goal accomplished with each? (p. 218)

 

 reinforcement, punishment, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement.

OTHER CONDITIONING CONCEPTS

10.6      How is extinction accomplished in operant conditioning? (p. 222)

 

 extinction.

 

COGNITIVE LEARNING

10.7      What is observational learning (as a form of cognitive learning)? (pp. 223-224)

10.8      What is Bandura’s social cognitive theory? (p. 225)

 

observational learning, modeling, model.

 

APPLICATION:  BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

10.9      How are the principles of operant conditioning applied in behavior modification? (pp. 232-233)

10.10    What are some disadvantages of punishment? (p. 233)

10.11    How can the effectiveness of punishment be increased and the undesirable effects of punishment be decreased? (p. 233)

 

behavior modification.

 

 

MODULE 11:  TYPES OF MEMORY

INRODUCTION

11.1      What are the three processes of memory? (p. 239)

 

encoding; storing (storage); retrieving (retrieval).

SHORT-TERM MEMORY:  WORKING

11.2            What are the characteristics of short-term memory? (pp. 242-243)

 

              short-term memory (STM); maintenance rehearsal.

LONG-TERM MEMORY:  STORING

11.3            What are the characteristics of long-term memory? (p. 244)

11.4            What are the subcategories of long-term memory? (p. 246)

11.5            What is the primacy-recency effect (or serial position effect)? (p. 245)

 

              long-term memory (LTM); declarative memory; semantic memory; episodic memory;   

 procedual or nondeclarative memory;  primacy-recency effect (or serial position

 effect); primacy effect; recency effect.

ENCODING:  TRANSFERRING

11.6            What is elaborative rehearsal and how does it aid memory? (p. 249)

 

elaborative rehearsal.

APPLICATION:  UNUSUAL MEMORIES

11.7            What is the nature of memory, pictures versus impressions? (p. 255)

 

MODULE 12:  REMEMBERING & FORGETTING

 

INTRODUCTION

12.1    what are the differences between recall and recognition tasks? (p. 261)

 

recall; recognition.

 

REASONS FOR FORGETTING

12.2      What are some common causes of forgetting? (p. 265)

12.3      What is interference? (p. 266)

12.4       How can poor retrieval cues (retrieval failure) lead to forgetting, and how can one form  

            effective retrieval cues? (p. 267)

 

          repression; motivated forgetting* (see Addendum); amnesia; interference; retrieval cues; tip-of-the-tongue 

          phenomenon.

 

BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MEMORY

12.5      What role does the hippocampus play in memory? (p. 268)

12.6      What is long-term potentiation (LTP), and how does it affect the making of a long-term memory? (p. 269)

 

Hippocampus; long-term potentiation (LTP).

MNEMONICS:  MEMORIZATION METHODS

12.7      What are some tips for improving memory? (p. 271)

 

overlearning* (see Addendum); massed practice (vs. spaced practice)* (see Addendum)

 

RESEARCH FOCUS:  FALSE MEMORIES

12.8      How can distortion in memory and false memories occur? (p. 273)

 

           reconstructive memory* (see Addendum).

 

 

MODULE 17:  INFANCY & CHILDHOOD

 

INTRODUCTION

17.1  What is developmental psychology? (p. 377)

         developmental psychology.

 

PRENATAL INFLUENCES

17.2      What are the three periods (stages) of prenatal development? (p. 379)

17.3   What are some hazards to prenatal development, and during what time is their impact greatest? (pp. 380-381)

          

           prenatal period; germinal stage; embryonic stage;  fetal stage;  teratogens; fetal alcohol                  

           syndrome (FAS).

 

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

17.4How did Harlow’s studies reveal about the importance of contact comfort on attachment formation in infant

             monkeys? [see contact comfort in Addendum]

17.5      What are the two basic attachment patterns that Ainsworth identified in infants? (p. 385)               

              contact comfort*(see Addendum); attachment, secure attachment, insecure attachment.

 

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

17.6    What occurs during Piaget's sensorimotor stage? (p. 389)

17.7    What cognitive limitations characterize a child's thinking during the preoperational stage? (p. 389)

17.8    What cognitive abilities do children acquire during the concrete operations stage? (p. 390)

17.9    What new capability characterizes the formal operations stage? (p. 390)

 

            sensorimotor stage; object permanence; preoperational stage; egocentric thinking; conservation;

            concrete operations stage; reversibility* (see Addendum); formal operations stage.

 

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

17.10   What is Erikson's theory of psychosocial development? (p. 393)

17.11   What is the major source of tension for infants, according to Erikson? (p. 393)

17.12   What are the main developmental issues for Erikson's stages 2 through 4? (p.393)

 

             psychosocial stages; trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt;

             initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority.

 

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (GENDER DIFFERENCES)

17.13What is gender identity? (p. 395)

17.14 How do children acquire gender roles? (p. 395)

 

17.15 What are the biological and psychological factors that contribute to gender identity and 

             gender role development? [Module 15, pp. 338-341]

 

gender identity; gender roles; social role theory; cognitive development theory; gender schemas.

 

 

MODULE 18:  ADOLESCENCE & ADULTHOOD

 

INTRODUCTION

18.1      What is adolescence? (p. 407)

 

adolescence.

 

PUBERTY & SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

18.2      What are some problems that teenagers face when they become sexually active before they are emotionally mature? (p. 409)

18.3      What is AIDS and how is AIDS transmitted? [Module 15, p. 345]

18.4      What happens to a person from the time of infection with HIV to the development of full-       

           blown AIDS?  [Module 15, p. 345]

 

           sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)* (see Addendum);  acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) 

           [Module 15, p. 345]; HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)  [Module 15, p. 345].

 

COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL CHANGES

18.5   What are Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning and